mRNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries information on how to construct a protein. It is transcribed from DNA and taken to ribosomes. Ribosomes "read" mRNA to link amino acids together in a specific sequence.
rRNA
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is also transcribed from DNA but is not a code carrier. This RNA becomes a structural part of the protein synthesizing molecular machines known as ribosomes.
tRNA
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) has a coding section and an amino acid carrying section. The code identifies which amino acid is carried so that the proper amino acids are used at ribosomes during protein synthesis.
MicroRNA
4. A microRNA (miRNA) is a short, non-coding RNA. miRNA molecules are complementary to parts of mRNA sequences and regulate gene expression by binding to mRNA to inhibit protein translation.
RNA Genomes
5. Although cellular life forms have DNA genomes, the same is not always true of viruses. Depending on the virus, a virus can have a DNA, or single or double stranded RNA genome.
Monday, January 24, 2011
What is RNA
RNA (Ribonucleic acid) - a single-stranded nucleic acid found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of a cell. It is a polymer of the sugar ribose, phosphate, purine and pyrimidine bases. RNA is very similar to DNA, but substitutes the nucleotide, uracil, for thymine. It acts as a "middle-man", converting genetic information from DNA to proteins. There are three types of RNA: mRNA (messenger RNA), which contains the specific sequence of nucleotides necessary to dictate amino acid sequence in proteins; tRNA (transfer RNA), which serves as the "adaptor" to position the appropriate amino acid next to a growing polypeptide chain during protein synthesis; and rRNA (ribosomal RNA), which is the RNA component of ribosomes. In some viruses, RNA is the genetic material
DNA cloning
According to the National Institute Genome Research Institute cloning describes a number of processes used to produce genetically identical copies of a biological entity. DNA cloning involves the use of manipulating DNA procedures in order to produce multiple copies of a single gene or segment of DNA
Types
The three types include gene, reproductive, and therapeutic. Gene cloning has always been directly linked to DNA cloning because this process produces copies of genes or segments of DNA.
Method
• Scientist normally use DNA cloning for researching genes. This method takes genes from one organism and inserts them into a host. The gene replicates many times over within this procedure.
Host Cells
• In order to replicate the genes the host cells must be replicated a number of times. Single host do not have enough space to contain the duplicated cells.
Recombinant DNA Technology
• Also called DNA cloning, Recombinant DNA Technology employs the use of scientific research for medicine and for the treatment of diseases plus disorders.
Purpose
• The use of DNA cloning allows scientists, researchers, and medical professionals to reduce the risk of diseases by discovering their root causes through genetic evaluation, the use of gene therapy against cancers, and the use of recombinant products for insulin plus growth hormones.
Types
The three types include gene, reproductive, and therapeutic. Gene cloning has always been directly linked to DNA cloning because this process produces copies of genes or segments of DNA.
Method
• Scientist normally use DNA cloning for researching genes. This method takes genes from one organism and inserts them into a host. The gene replicates many times over within this procedure.
Host Cells
• In order to replicate the genes the host cells must be replicated a number of times. Single host do not have enough space to contain the duplicated cells.
Recombinant DNA Technology
• Also called DNA cloning, Recombinant DNA Technology employs the use of scientific research for medicine and for the treatment of diseases plus disorders.
Purpose
• The use of DNA cloning allows scientists, researchers, and medical professionals to reduce the risk of diseases by discovering their root causes through genetic evaluation, the use of gene therapy against cancers, and the use of recombinant products for insulin plus growth hormones.
DNA fingerprinting
DNA fingerprinting dates back to 1985 when it was first developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys in England. It is considered the greatest achievement in forensic science since the development of fingerprint identification. DNA fingerprinting has been highly successful in the identification of criminal suspects, the resolution of paternity issues, and the identification of human remains. The use of DNA as evidence in a criminal court case became familiar to the masses with the 1995 O. J. Simpson trial. Read more about DNA fingerprint Identification including its use as criminal evidence in court cases. Since the discovery of DNA fingerprinting in 1985, there has been tremendous progress made in the methodology of comparing DNA samples. Continue on to read more about the main types of DNA fingerprinting Methods used in forensic science: RFLP, PCR, AmpFLP, and STR.
Microarray
Molecular Biology research evolves through the development of the technologies used for carrying them out. It is not possible to research on a large number of genes using traditional methods. DNA Microarray is one such technology which enables the researchers to investigate and address issues which were once thought to be non traceable. One can analyze the expression of many genes in a single reaction quickly and in an efficient manner. DNA Microarray technology has empowered the scientific community to understand the fundamental aspects underlining the growth and development of life as well as to explore the genetic causes of anomalies occurring in the functioning of the human body.
A typical microarray experiment involves the hybridization of an mRNA molecule to the the DNA template from which it is originated. Many DNA samples are used to construct an array. The amount of mRNA bound to each site on the array indicates the expression level of the various genes. This number may run in thousands. All the data is collected and a profile is generated for gene expression in the cell.
A typical microarray experiment involves the hybridization of an mRNA molecule to the the DNA template from which it is originated. Many DNA samples are used to construct an array. The amount of mRNA bound to each site on the array indicates the expression level of the various genes. This number may run in thousands. All the data is collected and a profile is generated for gene expression in the cell.
Gene Cloning and DNA Analysis
Known world-wide as the standard introductory text to this important and exciting area, the fifth edition of Gene Cloning and DNA Analysis addresses new and growing areas of research whilst retaining the philosophy of the previous editions. Assuming the reader has little prior knowledge of the subject its importance, the principles of the techniques used and their applications are all carefully laid out, with over 250 clearly presented two-colour illustrations.
In addition to a number of informative changes to the text throughout the book, the final four chapters have been significantly updated and extended to reflect the striking advances made in recent years in the applications of gene cloning and DNA analysis in biotechnology:
Extended chapter on agriculture including new material on glyphosate resistant plants
New section on the uses of gene cloning and PCR in archaeology
Coverage of ethical concerns relating to pharming, gene therapy and GM crops
Gene Cloning and DNA Analysis remains an essential introductory text to a wide range of biological sciences students; including genetics and genomics, molecular biology, biochemistry, immunology and applied biology. It is also a perfect introductory text for any professional needing to learn the basics of the subject. All libraries in universities where medical, life and biological sciences are studied and taught should have copies available on their shelves.
In addition to a number of informative changes to the text throughout the book, the final four chapters have been significantly updated and extended to reflect the striking advances made in recent years in the applications of gene cloning and DNA analysis in biotechnology:
Extended chapter on agriculture including new material on glyphosate resistant plants
New section on the uses of gene cloning and PCR in archaeology
Coverage of ethical concerns relating to pharming, gene therapy and GM crops
Gene Cloning and DNA Analysis remains an essential introductory text to a wide range of biological sciences students; including genetics and genomics, molecular biology, biochemistry, immunology and applied biology. It is also a perfect introductory text for any professional needing to learn the basics of the subject. All libraries in universities where medical, life and biological sciences are studied and taught should have copies available on their shelves.
DNA Double Helix
The double-stranded helical model for DNA is shown in the graphic on the left. The easiest way to visualize DNA is as an immensely long rope ladder, twisted into a cork-screw shape. The sides of the ladder are alternating sequences of deoxyribose and phosphate (backbone) while the rungs of the ladder (bases) are made in two parts with each part firmly attached to the side of the ladder. The parts in the rung are heterocyclic amines held in position by hydrogen bonding. Although most DNA exists as open ended double helices, some bacterial DNA has been found as a cyclic helix. Occasionally, DNA has also been found as a single strand.
DNA - The source of heredity
The double helix of DNA controls heredity on the molecular level. The hereditary information is stored as the sequence of bases along the polynucleotide chain - a message written in a language of only 4 letters, A, C, G and T. DNA both preserves this information, and uses it. It does this through 2 properties:
1. DNA molecules can duplicate themselves, in a process called replication, in which the 2 halves of the helix separate and a new partner is fabricated to exactly match each half.
2. DNA molecules control the synthesis of the proteins which characterise each type of organism. The structure of DNA directly controls the structure of proteins, and the structure of proteins directly determines the way in which they control living processes. It would appear that biology is increasingly becoming a matter of the shapes and sizes of molecules.
1. DNA molecules can duplicate themselves, in a process called replication, in which the 2 halves of the helix separate and a new partner is fabricated to exactly match each half.
2. DNA molecules control the synthesis of the proteins which characterise each type of organism. The structure of DNA directly controls the structure of proteins, and the structure of proteins directly determines the way in which they control living processes. It would appear that biology is increasingly becoming a matter of the shapes and sizes of molecules.
DNA Structure and Replication
This BioCoach module is designed to help you understand DNA structure and replication. As you solve problems, you will be reviewing the chemical structure of DNA and the process of DNA replication. Animations and interactive activities will enrich your review experience in a dynamic way. This module is designed to be a supplement to, but not a replacement for, your textbook and classroom notes. You can test your understanding of DNA structure and replication by using the Self Quiz at the end of the module.
What is DNA
DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms. Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the same DNA. Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria. The information in DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people. The order, or sequence, of these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an organism, similar to the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a certain order to form words and sentences.
DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.
An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.
DNA bases pair up with each other, A with T and C with G, to form units called base pairs. Each base is also attached to a sugar molecule and a phosphate molecule. Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are called a nucleotide. Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix. The structure of the double helix is somewhat like a ladder, with the base pairs forming the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming the vertical sidepieces of the ladder.
An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.
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